四大发明英语介绍

The Four Great Inventions 四大发明

The Compass 指南针

Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass

Main article: Compass

The earliest reference to magnetism in Chinese literature is found in a 4th century BC book called Book of the Devil Valley Master (鬼谷子): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it"

The earliest reference to a magnetic device used as a "direction finder" is in a Song Dynasty book dated to AD 1040-44 Here there is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night" However, the first suspended magnetic needle compass was written of by Shen Kuo in his book of AD 1088

For most of Chinese history, the compass that remained in use was in the form of a magnetic needle floating in a bowl of water According to Needham, the Chinese in the Song Dynasty and continuing Yuan Dynasty did make use of a dry compass, although this type never became as widely used in China as the wet compass

The dry compass used in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the loadstone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction Although the 14th century European compass-card in box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by Japanese pirates in the 16th century (who had in turn learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century

Gunpowder 火药

Handgun from the Yuan dynasty, circa 1300s

Main article: History of gunpowder

The prevailing academic consensus is that gunpowder was discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality By the time the Song Dynasty treatise, Wujing Zongyao (武经总要), was written by Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide in AD 1044, the various Chinese formulas for gunpowder held levels of nitrate in the range of 27% to 50% By the end of the 12th century, Chinese formulas of gunpowder had a level of nitrate capable of bursting through cast iron metal containers, in the form of the earliest hollow, gunpowder-filled grenade bombs

In AD 1280, the bomb store of the large gunpowder arsenal at Weiyang accidentally caught fire, which produced such a massive explosion that a team of Chinese inspectors at the site a week later deduced that some 100 guards had been killed instantly, with wooden beams and pillars blown sky high and landing at a distance of over 10 li (~2 mi or ~32 km) away from the explosion

By the time of Jiao Yu and his Huolongjing in the mid 14th century, the explosive potential of gunpowder was perfected, as the level of nitrate in gunpowder formulas had risen to a range of 12% to 91%, with at least 6 different formulas in use that are considered to have maximum explosive potential for gunpowder By that time, the Chinese had discovered how to create explosive cannonballs by packing their hollow shells with this nitrate-enhanced gunpowder

Papermaking 造纸术

Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC

Main article: Papermaking

Further information: Science and technology of the Han Dynasty

Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste However a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from near Dunhuang of paper with writing on it dating to 8 BC

While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC, paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for toilet paper as well During the Tang Dynasty (AD 618–907) paper was folded and sewn into square bags to preserve the flavor of tea The Song Dynasty (AD 960–1279) that followed was the first government to issue paper currency

Printing 印刷术

Main article: History of typography in East Asia

The Chinese invention of Woodblock printing, at some point before the first dated book in 868 (the Diamond Sutra), produced the world's first print culture According to A Hyatt Mayor, curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, "it was the Chinese who really discovered the means of communication that was to dominate until our age" Woodblock printing was better suited to Chinese characters than movable type, which the Chinese also invented, but which did not replace woodblock printing Western printing presses, although introduced in the 16th century, were not widely used in China until the 19th century China, along with Korea, was one of the last countries to adopt them

The intricate frontispiece of the Diamond Sutra from Tang Dynasty China, AD 868 (British Museum)

Woodblock printing for textiles, on the other hand, preceded text printing by centuries in all cultures, and is first found in China at around 220, then Egypt in the 4th century, and reached Europe by the 14th century or before, via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for old master prints and playing cards In another analysis Hyatt Mayor states that "a little before 1400 Europeans had enough paper to begin making holy images and playing cards in woodcut They need not have learned woodcut from the Chinese, because they had been using woodblocks for about 1,000 years to stamp designs on linen"

Printing in China was further advanced by the 11th century, as it was written by the Song Dynasty scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095) that the common artisan Bi Sheng (990-1051) invented ceramic movable type printingThen there were those such as Wang Zhen (fl 1290-1333) and Hua Sui (1439-1513), the former of whom invented wooden movable type printing in China, the latter of whom invented metal movable type printing in China Movable type printing was a tedious process if one were to assemble thousands of individual characters for the printing of simply one or a few books, but if used for printing thousands of books, the process was efficient and rapid enough to be successful and highly employed Indeed, there were many cities in China where movable type printing, in wooden and metal form, was adopted by the enterprises of wealthy local families or large private industries The Qing Dynasty court sponsored enormous printing projects using woodblock movable type printing during the 18th century Although superseded by western printing techniques, woodblock movable type printing remains in use in isolated communities in China

就是类似于

PIANO 钢琴 这样的么？

那就很多种了

Acoustic Grand Piano 听觉的大钢琴

Bright Acoustic Piano 明亮的普通钢琴

Electric Grand Piano 电大钢琴

Honky-tonk Piano 白人-强打钢琴

Electric Piano 1 电钢琴 1

Electric Piano 2 电钢琴 2

Harpsichord 大键架

Celesta 钟琴

Glockenspiel 铁琴

Music Box 音乐匣

Vibraphone 铁琴

Marimba 马林巴

Xylophone 木琴

Tubular Bells 管铃

巴松笛 bassoon

巴松管 bassoon

班卓琴 banjo

板 pan [wooden board]

半音阶口琴 chromatic harmonica

半音阶旋律琴 chromelodeon

半音竖琴 chrometic harp

梆笛 pang-ti [Chinese piccolo]

倍低音管 double bassoon; contrabassoon

扁磬 stone chime

颤音口琴 tremolo harmonica

长笛 flute

粗管低音号 mandolie

大钢琴 grand piano

大鼓 bass drum

大键琴 harpsichord

大喇叭 tuba

大锣 bass gong

大提琴 cello; violoncello

单簧管 clarinet

Dulcimer 德西马琴

Harmonica 口琴

Accordion 手风琴

Tango Accordion 探戈舞手风琴

Acoustic Guitar (nylon) 普通吉他 (尼龙)

Acoustic Guitar (steel)Electric Guitar (jazz) 普通吉他 (钢) 电吉他 (爵士乐)

Electric Guitar (clean) 电吉他 (清)

Electric Guitar (muted) 电吉他 (哑)

Distortion Guitar 失真吉他

Guitar harmonics 吉他和声学

Acoustic Bass 听觉的低音

Electric Bass (finger) 电的低音 (手指)

Electric Bass (pick) 电的低音 (精选)

Fretless Bass 无烦躁的低音

Slap Bass 1 掴低音 1

Slap Bass 2 掴低音 2

Synth Bass 1 合成器低音 1

Synth Bass 2 合成器低音 2

Violin 小提琴

Viola 中提琴

Cello 大提琴

Contrabass 最低音弦乐器

Tremolo Strings 颤音串

Pizzicato Strings Pizzicato 串

Orchestral Harp 管弦乐的竖琴

Timpani Timpani

String Ensemble 1 串全体 1

String Ensemble 2 串全体 2

SynthStrings 1 SynthStrings 1

SynthStrings 2 SynthStrings 2

Choir Aahs 唱诗班 Aahs

Voice Oohs 话音 Oohs

Synth Voice 合成器话音

Orchestra Hit 管弦乐队击中

Trumpet 喇叭

Trombone 伸缩喇叭

Tuba 低音大喇叭

French Horn 法国号

SynthBrass 1 SynthBrass 1

SynthBrass 2 SynthBrass 2

Soprano Sax 女高音 Sax

Alto Sax 次高音 Sax

Tenor Sax 行程 Sax

Baritone Sax 男中音 Sax

Oboe 双簧管

English Horn 英国人喇叭

Bassoon 低音管

Clarinet 竖笛

Piccolo 高音笛

Flute 笛

Recorder 录音机

Pan Flute 平锅笛

Blown Bottle 吹出的瓶子

Shakuhachi Shakuhachi

Whistle 口哨

Ocarina 陶制甘薯形笛

Lead 1 (square) 超前 1(正方形)

Lead 2 (sawtooth) 超前 2(锯齿)

Lead 3 (calliope) 超前 3(calliope)

Lead 4 (chiff) 超前 4(chiff)

Lead 5 (charang) 超前 5(charang)

Lead 6 (voice) 超前 6(话音)

Lead 7 (fifths) 超前 7(第五)

Lead 8 (bass + lead) 超前 8( 低音 +超前)

Pad 1 (new age) 填补 1(新的年龄)

Pad 2 (warm) 填补 2(温暖)

Pad 3 (polysynth) 填补 3(polysynth)

Pad 4 (choir) 填补 4(唱诗班)

Pad 5 (bowed) 填补 5(弯腰)

Pad 6 (metallic) 填补 6(金属的)

Pad 7 (halo) 填补 7(晕轮)

Pad 8 (sweep) 填补 8(扫除)

FX 1 (rain) FX 1(雨)

FX 2 (soundtrack) FX 2(原音带)

FX 3 (crystal) FX 3(晶体)

FX 4 (atmosphere) FX 4(大气)

FX 5 (brightness) FX 5(亮度)

FX 6 (goblins) FX 6(顽皮的丑小鬼)

FX 7 (echoes) FX 7(回送)

FX 8 (sci-fi) FX 8( 科幻)

Sitar 西塔琴

Banjo 班卓琴

Shamisen Shamisen

Koto 古琴

Kalimba Kalimba

Bag pipe 袋子管道

Fiddle 小提琴

Shanai Shanai

Tinkle Bell 清脆的金属音铃

Agogo Agogo

Steel Drums 钢鼓

Woodblock 木板

Taiko Drum Taiko 鼓

Melodic Tom 有旋律的汤姆

Synth Drum 合成器鼓

Reverse Cymbal 颠倒铙钹

Guitar Fret Noise 吉他烦躁噪声

Breath Noise 呼吸噪声

Seashore 海岸

Bird Tweet 鸟小鸟叫声

Telephone Ring 电话戒指

Helicopter 直升飞机

Applause 鼓掌

还有一个网站补充点

http://wwwyongnanet/data/2006/0114/article_6405htm

大家都知道汽车是人们专用的交通工具，随着人民生活水平的提高，汽车将越来越多，但是它也给人们带来更重的负担，堵车、交通事故、排放出的二氧化碳会污染环境等等。

我想发明一种与众不同的汽车，这种汽车技术格外先进，司机是一台超级电脑，它管着车内所有的程序系统，能自动导航，不仅能在陆地上行驶，而且能上天，像飞机一样飞，能下海，像潜水艇似的，在海里自由地航行，自动探测无人岛，这种汽车叫海陆空三用新型汽车。

它的能源是二氧化碳，释放出来的是氧气，使空气十分清新。如果你在车上，看见车窗外的大自然与繁华的高科技都市和谐地融为一体，你就会自我陶醉，使自己进入梦的世界。

怎么样？我发明的新型汽车还不错吧？我想这个原望总有一天会实现的。　

现在我们的社会越来越先进了，许多家长都因为工作太忙，每时间管小孩。上学的小孩没有大人的照顾，上幼儿园的小孩没有大人的陪伴。我想发明一种机器人——保姆机器人。 为什么叫保姆机器人呢？那是因为这种机器人和保姆一样可以干活。 我设计的这种保姆机器人，头部和人差不多，会思考，会说话。身体是一个烤箱，可以煮东西。腿是一把椅子，小孩累了可以坐上去休息。脚是轮子，可以飞快的去一个地方。后脑勺是一台电脑，小孩可以坐在腿上打电脑。它的特点是可以照顾小孩，帮小孩学习，帮大人做家务……我们让它到哪里去，它便会到那里去了。 我是由现在的社会想到的。因为小孩没有大人的照顾可能会变的野蛮。 它可以取代家长要做的许多事情。它可以和孤独小孩一起聊天、玩耍。这样小孩就不会孤单了。

那是一种多好的机器人呀！我现在就在研究这种机器人。

在一宁静的夜晚，小鸟睡了，小鸡睡了，大地也睡了……只有我一个人儿独自在灯下做我幻想中的文具盒。我找来硬纸、剪刀、尺子、双面胶等，开始了我的奇妙设计。

　　它是长方形的，长18厘米左右，高4厘米，宽6厘米外部左边是一对和平鸽，头上的羽毛和腹部的羽毛都是白色的，一双红眼睛，自由转动着，它的右下角有两朵绽开的小红花。

　　内部分三层，上层有课程表，左边有灯、镜子，中层安装起削笔刀、音乐盒，底层放有尺子、剪刀和笔。

　　它的用途可真了不起，可以指导我们写作业，灯照着我们学习，每当我想睡觉的时候会自动发出悦耳的歌声，使我重新振作起来，它用电池，也不要插电，吸要在它的底部放一张纸就可以了。

　　它有防盗功能，只要有别的人拿它，就会被触电，只有用主人的指纹才能打开或拿动它，还可以飞起来，它可以自动收拾文具。

　　有了它不会忘记带学习用具；有了它晚上陪我放学回家；有了它不要用台灯，拉开开关，灯刹地亮了，我可以在下面全神贯注的做作业。　　

我真喜欢我自己的发明创造—万能文具盒。

我长大想发明一种能够飞天，入地的汽车，而且车里有很多全自动的按钮可以干很多的事情。它的外皮非常坚固，用非常锋利的东西也损伤不了它，而且它还不怕火。它可以飞到天空上看一看天空中的小鸟，还可以看一看千变万化的云彩，它还可以入地，看看地底下有什么宝物，还可以去地核里去探索地核的奥秘；它还可以潜水，到水底看一看海底的生物，还可以在海里和鲨鱼近距离接触，还可以跟鲨鱼拍照片，它还可以隐身，如果你在开车，后面有个强盗在追你，你就可以按钮，这样强盗就看不着你了。它还可以带你去宇宙太阳上去，看看太阳黑子到底有多大，可能你不相信，可是我创造的汽车多高温度也不怕，还可以去月球里去探索月球有没有生物？这就是以后我要发明的汽车。　　

你可以选择一段来用。

The Four Great Inventions

China's long history has seen some extremely important inventions emerge, most noticeably gunpowder, paper making, printing and the compass, which, in the words of Roger Bacon, changed the whole appearance and status of things in the world

China was the first country in the world to make proper paper Paper made during the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-16 AD) has been found in Gansu Province, Xi'an and other places in Shaanxi Province as well as Xinjiang A further development of paper is credited to Cai Lun of the Eastern Han (25-220) He used plant fiber such as tree bark, bits of rope, rags and worn-out fishing nets as raw materials In 105, Cai presented the first batch of paper made under his supervision to the Han emperor, who was so delighted that he named the material "Marquis Cai's paper" Eastern Han Dynasty paper found in Wuwei, Gansu, in 1974 carried words which were still clearly decipherable Thin, soft, and with a smooth finish and tight texture, this paper is the most refined and oldest paper discovered to date

Before paper was invented, the ancient Chinese carved characters on pottery, animal bones and stones, cast them on bronzes, or wrote them on bamboo or wooden strips and silk fabric These materials, however, were either too heavy or two expensive for widespread use The invention and use of paper brought about a revolution in writing materials, paving the way for the invention of printing technology in the years to come

The invention of gunpowder was no doubt one of the most significant achievements of the Middle Ages in China The correct prescription for making gunpowder with nitre, sulphur and carbon was probably discovered in the ninth century In fact, in his book, Ge Hong in the third century records the procedures for making a kind of mixture that could be ignited After the Tang Dynasty (618-907), things took a much faster course as gunpowder was already used in simple hand-grenades which were thrown by a catapult In 1126, Li Gang, a local official, recorded how he ordered the defenders of the city of Kaifeng to "fire cannons" at the invading Nuzhen tribal people, inflicting heavy casualties on the invaders

The first prescription for gunpowder appeared in 1044, much earlier than the earliest (1265) gunpowder-making instructions recorded in Europe By the Song Dynasty (960-1126), gunpowder was in extensive use Weapons made with it included rifles and rockets The Song army also used a kind of flame thrower which involved packing gunpowder into bamboo tubes The earliest picture of a European cannon shows that it bears a striking similarity to Chinese cannon of 1128

About 1230, the Song army had cannon powerful enough to breach city walls

A bronze Chinese cannon cast in 1332 is the oldest one in the world extant today Many bronze and iron cannons have been unearthed in China, most of them bearing inscriptions dating them to between 1280 and 1380

On the basis of printing using carved blocks in the Tang Dynasty, Bi Sheng of the Northern Song Dynasty invented movable type printing in the 1040s, which ushered in a major revolution in the history of printing

Bi's printing consisted of four processes: making the types, composing the text, printing and retrieving the movable types According to Dream Stream Essays, Bi Sheng carved individual characters on squares of sticky clay, then baked them make clay type pieces When composing a text, he put a large iron frame on a piece of iron board and arranged the words within the frame While one plate was being printed, another plate could be composed After printing, the movable types were taken away and stored for future use Movable type printing has a very important position in the history of printing, for all later printing methods such as wooden type, copper type and lead type printing invariably developed on the basis of movable clay types Bi Sheng created movable type printing more than four hundred years earlier than it was invented in Europe

According to ancient records, natural magnets were employed in China as direction-finding devices This led to the first compass, called a sinan (south-pointing ladle) during the Warring States Period In the Han Dynasty compasses consisted of a bronze on which 24 directions were carved and a rod made from a natural magnet Such devices were in use until the eighth century

In the Song Dynasty, Shen Kuo described the floating compass, suspended in water, a technique which minimized the effect of motion on the instrument This enabled the compass to be used for sea navigation for the first time The invention of the compass promoted maritime undertakings, and its use soon spread to the Arab world, and thence to Europe

China's four great ancient inventions made tremendous contributions to the world's economy and the culture of mankind They were also important symbols of China's role as a great world civilization

　　woodblock printing was invented sometime between h the 4th的意思是木刻版印刷在公元4世纪到公元7世纪在中国发明的。

　　木刻版印刷（Block Printing），一种使用木刻版的印刷方法。用尖利的工具或化学品在木头、麻胶、橡胶或其它材料进行雕刻，让图案凸出木板表面。然后将油墨涂在凸出的表面，在上面盖上一张纸、布或皮纸。通过按压，油墨就转到纸张上。可以用手按压，也可以使用机械压具。木刻版印刷是古代的中国人发明的，可用于印制彩色织物，艺术家和爱好者也使用这种印刷方法。

指南针

在发明指南针之前人类在茫茫大海中航行，常常会迷失方向，造成不可想象的后果,是中国人发明了指南针，使人类航行有了方向。指南针是用以判别方位的一种简单仪器。中国古代四大发明之一。主要组成部分是一根装在轴上可以自由转动的磁针。磁针在地磁场作用下能保持在磁子午线的切线方向上。磁针的北极指向地理的南极，利用这一性能可以辨别方向。常用于航海、大地测量、旅行及军事等方面。

指南针的发明是我国劳动人民，在长期的实践中对物体磁性认识的结果。由于生产劳动，人们接触了磁铁矿，开始了对磁性质的了解。人们首先发现了磁石引铁的性质。后来又发现了磁石的指向性。经过多方的实验和研究，终于发明了可以实用的指南针。

磁现象的发现

先秦时代我们的先人已经积累了许多这方面的认识，在探寻铁矿时常会遇到磁铁矿，即磁石（主要成分是四氧化三铁）。这些发现很早就被记载下来了。《管子》的数篇中最早记载了这些发现：“山上有磁石者，其下有金铜。”其他古籍如《山海经》中也有类似的记载。磁石的吸铁特性很早就被人发现，《吕氏春秋》九卷精通篇就有：“慈招铁，或引之也。”那时的人称“磁”为“慈”他们把磁石吸引铁看作慈母对子女的吸引。并认为：“石是铁的母亲，但石有慈和不慈两种，慈爱的石头能吸引他的子女，不慈的石头就不能吸引了。”

汉以前人们把磁石写做“慈石”，是慈爱石头的意思。

既然磁石能吸引铁，那么是否还可以吸引其他金属呢？我们的先民做了许多尝试，发现磁石不仅不能吸引金、银、铜等金属，也不能吸引砖瓦之类的物品。西汉的时候人们已经认识到磁石只能吸引铁，而不能吸引其他物品。

当把两块磁铁放在一起相互靠近时，有时候互相吸引，有时候相互排斥。现在人们都知道磁体有两个极，一个称N极，一个称S极。同性极相互排斥，异性极相互吸引。那时的人们并不知道这个道理，但对这个现象还是能够察觉到的。

到了西汉，有一个名叫栾大的方士，他利用磁石的这个性质做了两个棋子般的东西，通过调整两个棋子极性的相互位置，有时两个棋子相互吸引，有时相互排斥。栾大称其为“斗棋”。他把这个新奇的玩意献给汉武帝，并当场演示。汉武帝惊奇不已，龙心大悦，竟封栾大为“五利将军”。栾大利用磁石的性质，制作了新奇的玩意蒙骗了汉武帝。

地球也是一个大磁体，它的两个极分别在接近地理南极和地理北极的地方。因此地球表面的磁体，可以自由转动时，就会因磁体同性相斥，异性相吸的性质指示南北。这个道理古人不够明白，但这类现象他们很清楚。

指南针的始祖——司南

指南针的始祖大约出现在战国时期。它是用天然磁石制成的。样子象一把汤勺，圆底，可以放在平滑的“地盘”上并保持平衡，且可以自由旋转。当它静止的时候，勺柄就会指向南方。古人称它为“司南”，当时的著作《韩非子》中就有：“先王立司南以端朝夕。”“端朝夕”就是正四方、定方位的意思。《鬼谷子》中记载了司南的应用，郑国人采玉时就带了司南以确保不迷失方向。

春秋时代，人们已经能够将硬度5度至7度的软玉和硬玉琢磨成各种形状的器具，因此也能将硬度只有55度至65度的天然磁石制成司南。东汉时的王充在他的著作《论衡》中对司南的形状和用法做了明确的记录。司南是用整块天然磁石经过琢磨制成勺型，勺柄指南极，并使整个勺的重心恰好落到勺底的正中，勺置于光滑的地盘之中，地盘外方内圆，四周刻有干支四维，合成二十四向。这样的设计是古人认真观察了许多自然界有关磁的现象，积累了大量的知识和经验，经过长期的研究才完成的。司南的出现是人们对磁体指极性认识的实际应用。 但司南也有许多缺陷，天然磁体不易找到，在加工时容易因打击、受热而失磁。所以司南的磁性比较弱，而且它与地盘接触处要非常光滑，否则会因转动摩擦阻力过大，而难于旋转，无法达到预期的指南效果。而且司南有一定的体积和重量，携带很不方便，这可能是司南长期未得到广泛应用的主要原因。

司南由青铜盘和天然磁体制成的磁勺组成，青铜盘上刻有二十四向，置磁勺于盘中心圆面上，静止时，勺尾指向为南。

指南针的发明

古代民间常用薄铁叶剪裁成鱼形，鱼的腹部略下凹，像一只小船，磁化后浮在水面，就能指南北。当时以此做为一种游戏。东晋的崔豹在《古今注》中曾提到这种“指南鱼”。

北宋时，曾公亮在《武经总要》载有制作和使用指南鱼的的方法：“用薄铁叶剪裁，长二寸，阔五分，首尾锐如鱼型，置炭火中烧之，侯通赤，以铁钤钤鱼首出火，以尾正对子位，蘸水盆中，没尾数分则止，以密器收之。用时，置水碗于无风处平放，鱼在水面，令浮，其首常向午也。”这是一种人工磁化的方法，它利用地球磁场使铁片磁化。即把烧红的铁片放置在子午线的方向上。烧红的铁片内部分子处于比较活动的状态，使铁分子顺着地球磁场方向排列，达到磁化的目的。蘸入水中，可把这种排列较快地固定下来，而鱼尾略向下倾斜可增大磁化程度。人工磁化方法的发明，对指南针的应用和发展起了巨大的作用。在磁学和地磁学的发展史上也是一件大事。北宋的沈括在《梦溪笔谈》中提到另一种人工磁化的方法：“方家以磁石摩针锋，则能指南。”按沈括的说法，当时的技术人员用磁石去摩擦缝衣针，就能使针带上磁性。从现在的观点来看，这是一种利用天然磁石的磁场作用，使钢针内部磁畴的排列趋于某一方向，从而使钢针显示出磁性的方法。这种方法比地磁法简单，而且磁化效果比地磁法好，摩擦法的发明不但世界最早，而且为有实用价值的磁指向器的出现，创造了条件。

沈括还在《梦溪笔谈》的补笔谈中谈到了摩擦法磁化时产生的各种现象：“以磁石摩针锋，则锐处常指南，亦有指北者，恐石性亦不……，南北相反，理应有异，未深考耳。”这是说，用磁石去摩擦缝衣针后，针锋有时指南，也有时指北。从现在的观点来看，磁石都有N和S两个极，磁化时缝衣针针锋的方位不同，则磁化后的指向也就不同。但沈括并不知道这个道理，他真实的记录了这个现象并坦白承认自己没有做深入思考。以期望后人能进一步探讨。

关于磁针的装置方法，沈括介绍了四种方法：

1水浮法——将磁针上穿几根灯心草浮在水面，就可以指示方向。

2碗唇旋定法——将磁针搁在碗口边缘，磁针可以旋转，指示方向。

3指甲旋定法——把磁针搁在手指甲上面由于指甲面光滑，磁针可以旋转自如，指示方向。

4缕悬法——在磁针中部涂一些蜡，粘一根蚕丝，挂在没有风的地方，就可以指示方向了。

沈括还对四种方法做了比较，他指出，水浮法的最大缺点，水面容易晃动影响测量结果。碗唇旋定法和指甲旋定法，由于摩擦力小，转动很灵活，但容易掉落。沈括比较推重的是缕悬法，他认为这是比较理想而又切实可行的方法。事实上沈括指出的四种方法已经归纳了迄今为止指南针装置的两大体系——水针和旱针。

《梦溪笔谈》是沈括(1031—1095年)所著的有关我国古代科学技术的著作，书中谈到磁学和指南针的一些问题。

南宋陈元靓在《事林广记》中介绍了另一类指南鱼和指南龟的制作方法。这种指南鱼与《武经总要》一书记载的不一样，是用木头刻成鱼形，有手指那么大，木鱼腹中置入一块天然磁铁，磁铁的S极指向鱼头，用蜡封好后，从鱼口插入一根针，就成为指南鱼。将其浮于水面，鱼头指南，这也是水针的一类。

指南龟是当时流行的一种新装置，将一块天然磁石放置在木刻龟的腹内，在木龟腹下方挖一光滑的小孔，对准并放置在直立于木板上的顶端尖滑的竹钉上，这样木龟就被放置在一个固定的、可以自由旋转的支点上了。由于支点处摩擦力很小，木龟可以自由转动指南。当时它并没有用于航海指向，而用于幻术。但是这就是后来出现的旱罗盘的先声。

指南龟发明年代不晚于1325年。木块刻成龟型，龟腹部中心嵌以磁体，木龟安放在尖状立拄上，静止时首尾分指南北。

罗盘定位

要确定方向除了指南针之外，还需要有方位盘相配合。最初使用指南针时，可能没有固定的方位盘，随着测方位的需要，出现了磁针和方位盘一体的罗盘。罗盘有堪舆用的罗经盘和水罗盘、旱罗盘。

方位盘仍是二十四向，但是盘式已经由方形演变成圆形。这样一来只要看一看磁针在方位盘上的位置，就能断定出方位来。南宋时，曾三异在《因话录》中记载了有关这方面的文献：“地螺或有子午正针，或用子午丙壬间缝针。”这是有关罗经盘最早的文献记载。文献中所说的“地螺”，就是地罗，也就是罗经盘。文献中已经把磁偏角的知识应用到罗盘上。这种罗盘不仅有子午针（确定地磁场南北极方向的磁针），还有子午丙壬间缝针（用日影确定的地理南北极方向）这两个方向之间的夹角，就是磁偏角。

盘面周围刻二十四方位，内中盛水，磁针横穿灯草，浮于水面。

现在人们已经知道，地球的两个磁极和地理的南北极只是接近，并不重合。磁针指向的是地球磁极而不是地理的南北极，这样磁针指的就不是正南、正北方向而略有偏差，这个角度就叫磁偏角。又因为地球近似球形，所以磁针指向磁极时必向下倾斜，和水平方向有一个夹角，这个夹角称为磁倾角。不同地点的磁偏角和磁倾角都不相同。成书于北宋的《武经总要》在谈到用地磁法制造指南针时，就注意利用了磁倾角。沈括在《梦溪笔谈》谈到指南针不全指南，常微偏东。指出了磁偏角的存在。磁偏角和磁倾角的发现使指南针的指向更加准确。

磁性质的应用

指南针一经发明很快就被应用到军事、生产、日常生活、地形测量等方面，特别是航海上。指南针在航海上的应用有一个逐渐发展过程。成书年代略晚于《梦溪笔谈》的《萍洲可谈》中记有：“舟师识地理，夜则观星，昼则观日，阴晦则观指南针。”这是世界航海史上最早使用指南针的记载。文中指出，当时只在日月星辰见不到的时候才使用指南针，可见指南针刚开始使用时，使用还不熟练。二十几年后，许兢的《宣和奉使高丽图经》也有类似的记载：“惟视星斗前迈，若晦冥则用指南浮针，以揆南北。”到了元代，指南针一跃而成海上指航的最重要的仪器了。不论昼夜晴阴都用指南针导航了。而且还编制出使用罗盘导航，在不同航行地点指南针针位的连线图，叫做“针路”。船行到某处，采用何针位方向，一路航线都一一标识明白，作为航行的依据。

指南针的发明是古代先民对磁现象的观察和研究的结果。古代先民对磁现象的观察和研究的过程中，进一步了解了磁的性质，并试图更多地应用这些性质。传说秦始皇修建阿房宫时，有一宫门是用磁铁制造的。如果刺客带剑而过，立刻会被吸住，被卫兵当场捕获。这样的故事还很多，《晋书马隆传》记载马隆率兵西进甘、陕一带，在敌人必经的狭窄道路两旁，堆放磁石。穿着铁甲的敌兵路过时，被牢牢吸住，不能动弹了。马隆的士兵穿犀甲，磁石对他们没有什么作用，可自由行动。敌人以为神兵，不战而退。东汉的《异物志》记载了在南海诸岛周围有一些暗礁浅滩含有磁石，磁石经常把“以铁叶锢之”的船吸住，使其难以脱身。

魏晋南北朝时，我国先民对磁石的性质已有了很多认识。就连当时的诗人曹植在矫志诗中也用了“磁石引铁，于金不连。”的句子。可见他也了解磁石的性质。南北朝梁代的陶弘景在《名医别录》中提出了磁力测量的方法，他指出：优良磁石出产在南方，磁性很强，能吸引三、四根铁针，使几根针首尾相连挂在磁石上。磁性更强的磁石，能吸引十多根铁针，甚至能吸住一、二斤刀器。陶弘景不仅提出了磁性有强弱之分，而且指出了测量方法。这可能是世界上有关磁力测量的最早记载。

我国先民对磁石的性质的研究和认识是指南针发明和发展的基础。

中国在北宋时期就发明了人工磁化的两种方法：一种是沈括所说的用天然磁石摩擦钢针的方法，另一种是利用地球磁场的作用使钢铁磁化。

人们把经过磁化的钢针，穿过几根灯草，放在一个乘满水的碗里，它就能浮在水上为航船指明方向，这就是世界上最早用来指示方向的仪器--指南针。而许多动物已经在我们之前就学会了利用地球磁场来辨别方向。

火药

火药是我国古代四大发明之一。因为是用硝石、硫黄和木炭这三种物质混和制成的，而当时人们都把这三种东西作为治病的药物，所以取名“火药”，意思是“着火的药”。

自秦汉以后，炼丹家用硫黄、硝石等物炼丹，从偶然发生爆炸的现象中得到启示，再经过多次实践，找到了火药的配方。三国时有个聪明的技师马钧，用纸包火药的方法做出了娱乐用的“爆仗”，开创了火药应用的先河。

唐朝末年，火药开始应用到军事上。人们利用抛射石头的抛石机，把火药包点着以后，抛射出去，烧伤敌人，这是最原始的火炮。后来人们将球状火药包扎在箭杆头附近，点着引线以以后，用弓箭将火药射出去烧伤敌人。还有把火药、毒药，再加上一些沥清、桐油等，捣在一起做成毒球，点着以后，用弓箭射出，杀伤敌人是后来的“万人敌”。到了宋朝，人们将火药装填在竹筒里，火药背后扎有细小的“定向棒”，点燃火管上的火硝，引起筒里的火药迅速燃烧，产生向前的推力，使之飞向敌阵爆炸，这是世界上第一种火药火箭。以后又发明了火枪和枪，这些都是用竹管制成的原始管形火器，是近代代枪炮的老祖宗。

造纸术

造纸技术的发明，是中华民族对世界文明出贡献之一。

大约在3500多年前的商朝，我国就有了刻在龟甲和兽骨上的文字，称为甲骨文。到了春秋时，用竹片和木片替代龟甲和兽骨，称为竹简和木牍。甲骨和简牍都很笨重，战国时思想家惠施外出讲学，带的书简就装了五车，所以有学富五车的典故。西汉时在宫廷贵族中又用缣帛或绵纸写字。缣是细绢、帛是丝织品的总称吏一方缣帛上写字时，便于书写，不但比简牍写得多，而且还可以在上面作画，但是价格昂贵，只能供少数王宫贵族使用。公元前2世纪西汉初期已经有了纸。

发明人

东汉和帝元兴元年(公元105年)，蔡伦在总结前人制造丝织晶的经验的基础上，发明了用树皮、破渔网、破布、麻头等作原料，制造成了适合书写的植物纤维纸，才使纸成为普遍使用的书写材料。被称为“蔡侯纸”。

蔡伦只是改进造纸术，而不是纸的发明人。

造纸术在7世纪经朝鲜传到日本。8世纪中叶传到阿拉伯联合酋长国。到12世纪，欧洲才仿效中国的方法开始设厂造纸。

发明地点

洛阳

活字印刷术

印刷术是中国古代四大发明之一。它开始于隋朝的雕版印刷，经宋仁宗时的毕升发展、完善，产生了活字印刷，并由蒙古人传至了欧洲，所以后人称毕升为印刷术的始祖。中国的印刷术是人类近代文明的先导，为知识的广泛传播、交流创造了条件。

雕版印刷是用刀在一块块木板上雕刻成凸出来的反写字，然后再上墨，印到纸上。每印一种新书，木板就得从头雕起，速度很慢。如果刻版出了差错，又要重新刻起，劳作之辛苦，可想而知。

北宋刻字工人毕升在公元1004年至1048年间，用质细且带有粘性的胶泥，做成一个个四方形的长柱体，在上面刻上反写的单字，一个字一个印，放在土窑里用火烧硬，形成活字。然后按文章内容，将字依顺序排好，放在一个个铁框上做成印版，再在火上加热压平，就可以印刷了。印刷结束后把活字取下，下次还可再用。这种改进之后的印刷术叫做活板印刷术。

这种印刷方法虽然原始简单，却与现代铅字排印原理相同，使印刷技术进入了一个新时代。

后来，元代著名农学家与机械学家王桢发明了木活字，并创造出比较简捷的适于汉字复杂特点的转盘排字方法，后来又发明了金属活字，使活字印刷得到了改进。唐代的雕刻印本传到日本，8世纪后期日本完成了木板《陀罗尼经》以后又传到朝鲜民主主义人民共和国、阿拉伯联合酋长国一带和东欧。15世纪，德国人学会了用合金铸宇，从此毕升首创的活字印刷在欧洲各地推广开来。

北宋科学家、政治家沈括曾在《梦溪笔谈》中有一篇文章叫《活板》，其中详细介绍了活板印刷术的全过程，通俗易懂，非常详细。