哲学,是理论化、系统化的世界观,是自然知识、社会知识、思维知识的概括和总结,是世界观和方法论的统一。是社会意识的具体存在和表现形式,是以追求世界的本源、本质、共性或绝对、终极的形而上者为形式,以确立哲学世界观和方法论为内容的社会科学。哲学的核心是“求真”和“求知”,它的特点是思辨性、解释性和概括性。
哲学 - 词源 哲学
“哲学”一词,汉语中本来没有,1874年,日本启蒙家西周首先采用它来译西语philosophia一词。1896年前后康有为等将日本的译称介绍到中国,后渐渐通行。此语源自希腊语,是philein(爱)加上sophia(智慧)构成的,意即“爱智慧”。照此意,哲学就是求智慧的学问。
哲学 - 定义
所谓哲学,就是研究客观世界上的一切普遍规律的科学,就是研究自然界和人类社会发展中的一切普遍规律的科学,就是通过研究自然界、人类认识、人类种族和人类社会发展中的一切普遍规律,为人类认识、人类种族和人类社会的发展提供一切普遍适用的科学的认识方法和实践方法的科学。研究规律是手段,为人类认识和实践的发展提供认识方法和实践方法是目的。人类怎样认识世界,就会怎样改造世界和创造世界。在这个意义上说,所谓哲学,归根结底就是研究人类认识发展规律的科学。
哲学的定义一直存有争议,这个领域随着历史而不断地扩张,且根据不同的时代对不同的问题有兴趣而改变着。一般认同哲学是一种方法,而不是一套主张、命题或理论。哲学的研究是基于理性的思考,寻求能做出经过审视的假设且不跳脱信念或者只是纯粹的类推。不同的哲学家对推理的本质有不同的想法。虽然哲学源自西方的传统,但许多文明在历史上都存在着一些相似的论题。东亚和南亚的哲学被称之为东方哲学,而北非和中东则因为其和欧洲密切的互动,因此常被视为是西方哲学的一部份。
后现代主义把哲学定义为创造概念的学术。
哲学所涉及的研究范畴是其它学科的总和,它给出对世界本质的解释,在很大程度上影响着接受者的世界观。
哲学是研究范畴及其相互关系的一门学问。范畴涉及到一门学科的最基本研究对象、概念和内容,哲学具有一般方法论的功能。
哲学有别于其他方法去承述问题的方法是借由其有批判性的、一般有条理的方法与其依赖著有理性的辩论。
哲学 - 历史 哲学
古希腊时期的自然派哲学家被认为是西方最早的哲学家。
“哲”一词在中国起源很早,历史久远。如“孔门十哲”,“古圣先哲”等词,“哲”或“哲人”,专指那些善于思辨,学问精深者,即西方近世“哲学家”,“思想家”之谓。一般认为中国哲学起源东周时期,以孔子的儒家、老子的道家、墨子的墨家及晚期的法家为代表。而实际上在之前的《易经》当中,已经开始讨论哲学问题。
19世纪70年代,日本最早的西方哲学传播者西周借用古汉语译作“哲学”,1896年前后康有为等将日本的译称介绍到中国。在西方,哲学一词通常用来说明一个人对生活的某种看法(例如某人的“人生哲学”)和基本原则(例如价值观、思想、行为)。而在学术上的哲学,则是对这些基本原则的理性根据的质疑、反思,并试图对这些基本原则进行理性的重建。最早哲学的范围涵盖所有的知识层面。它一直是人类最抽象的知识研究。对哲学一词的介绍最初来自希腊思想家毕达哥拉斯。
哲学 - 特征 哲学的特征在于追问本质,不断反思。内容上,哲学的反思对象无所不包;深度上,哲学的反思是无穷无尽的。现实中,人们可以借用哲学的思维方式,但是不能照搬哲学的思维方式。也即是说人们能够直接关注的现实是具体而有限的,思维的不可封闭性使得我们在解决具体问题时不能进行无穷追问。
抽象是哲学的根本特点。因为一切存在之间都拥有抽象的同一,这种抽象的同一是内在结构的抽象同一和外在关系的抽象同一。正是基于这种抽象的同一,使我们有可能感觉到一切存在的存在。哲学所要做的就是阐述这种抽象同一的内容。
哲学是万学之学。一切具体的存在和发展都必须遵循抽象的规律;一切具体的应用学科都应该遵守抽象的哲学原理,但这必须以哲学原理的正确性为哲学的有用是因为它是统一切学问的万学之学;哲学的“无用”是因为它不直接致力于解决具体的问题。
哲学 - 名人见解 胡适
胡适在他的《中国哲学史大纲》指出:“凡研究人生且要的问题,从根本上着想,要寻求一个且要的解决”这样的学问叫做哲学。
十八世纪德国著名浪漫派诗人、短命天才诺瓦利斯(1772—1801)关于哲学的定义:哲学是全部科学之母。哲学活动的本质原就是精神还乡,凡是怀着乡愁的冲动到处寻找精神家园的活动皆可称之为哲学。
爱因斯坦关于哲学的定义:如果把哲学理解为在最普遍和最广泛的形式中对知识的追求,那么,哲学显然就可以被认为是全部科学之母。
冯友兰在《中国哲学简史》中提到自己的哲学定义:“就是对于人生的有系统的反思的思想”。
毛泽东认为:哲学就是认识论。
哲学 - 研究对象 哲学
哲学的基本问题──人与世界的关系问题。人与世界的关系,显然不是那种严格的相互对等的关系。人总是以主动的行为影响着世界,以追求人与世界的和谐统一,使世界的存在状况更适合人的生存。
人与世界的关系集中表现为人认识世界和人改造世界两个方面。因为各种领域都有相关的哲学问题,所以哲学探究的范围很广泛,包括人生、知识、价值、科学、社会、政治、艺术、音乐及文学。但不论在哪个领域上,哲学探究的焦点往往都集中在三类工作。
概念分析。哲学是要考察人们的思想与行动的理据。此过程常会引导我们去釐清自己所使用的概念。
推理及证立。当人们考虑某些理据能否支持自己的见解。
自然会追问:什麼是好的理由、理由又怎样支持见解,以及在思考过程中有哪些常见的错误。所以,哲学探究的另一类工作就是研究推理及见解之确立的过程。
哲学 - 基础学 马克思哲学
古希腊哲学家透过问问题来进行哲学实践,他们所提的问题大概可以归类为三类,这三类问题分别形成了哲学的基础学科,形而上学(metaphysics),知识论(Epistemology)以及伦理学(Ethics)。
最初的三类问题分别是:
有关世界的本质与真理的问题
有关我们如何知道或认识真理的问题
有关生命意义与道德实践的问题
哲学 - 区别学科 与科学的关系哲学
从西方学术史看,科学是哲学的衍生物。后来,科学独立为与哲学并行的学科。科学与哲学有互动关系。科学产生知识,哲学产生思想。马克思主义认为,哲学也是一种社会意识形态。现代西方哲学中有科学哲学,是专门研究有关科学的理论。这种理论研究了科学的历史,为科学总结了许多理论模型,但这也只是解释了科学,并不是可以指导科学。哲学是人类了解世界的一种特殊方式,是使人崇高起来的一门学问。
科学和哲学,同属于理性之运用,其产品却不一样,这是因为运用的方式不同。科学总是必须把理性运用于具体的经验对象上,以便将日常经验提升为有普遍效用的知识,这也就是说,科学必须在它的分门别类的科学中针对一定范围的经验领域。如果理性不是把它的目光对准经验对象,而是对人性的活动、或者说对人类文明自身作反思。相对于科学而言,我们可以说,理性在这时候是对科学本身奠立其上的人类生活基础作反思。
哲学同艺术、宗教的区别
哲学同艺术、宗教的区别在于精神达到自觉的途径方式不同。艺术以感性直观的方式观照文明体系之内在的人性质素,宗教则将这种人性的质素表象为一种超验的神性,这些则把文明中的人性质素作为文明的意义基础,将其阐发为“纯粹的思”。
“纯粹的思”是相对于经验中的思而言的。对具体事物的感情和认识活动,是“在经验中的思”;实际地改变或制作具体事物的实践活动,若单就其本质的方面而言,其实也就是“在经验中的思”。而哲学的认识则是对经验中的思再作思,即拿思想本身来做一番“思” ,用古希腊哲学家亚历士多德的话说,就是“思想思想”。因为所谓“经验中的思”正是文明活动中的人的质素,所以,“思想思想”就是对人性质素本身作理性的考察。考察所得,即是“纯粹的思”。哲学是因为“思想思想”,所以确实能赋予精神的自觉以最高的纯粹性。[1]
哲学 - 相关理论
利他主义──反现实主义──佛教哲学──儒家思想──享乐主义──唯物主义──唯心主义──理想主义──非现实主义──逻辑正确主义──悲观主义──道家思想──自我主义──悲观主义──理性主义──现实主义──唯美主义──形而上学唯物主义──辩证唯物主义──客观唯心主义──主观唯心主义──非理性主义──斯多噶主义──存在主义──形而上学——功利主义—
哲学 - 哲学分支
由于研究领域的不同,哲学有很多分支。
哲学史:东方哲学史,印度哲学,中国哲学史,伊斯兰哲学,日本哲学
西方哲学史:古希腊哲学,中世纪哲学,文艺复兴时期哲学,德国古典哲学,俄国哲学
科学哲学
现代哲学 :生存哲学,分析哲学,人文哲学,解释学,符号学,实用主义哲学
伦理学:医学伦理学,教育伦理学,政治伦理学,家庭伦理学,生命伦理学,生态伦理学
美学:美学史,艺术美学,技术美学
形而上学
现象学
过程哲学
知识论
死亡哲学
人生哲学
法律哲学
心灵哲学
当代英美哲学
比较哲学
当代法国哲学
哲学 - 哲学家代表 孔子
古代中国哲学家孔子(儒家学派创始人) ,老子(道家学派创始人) ,
希腊哲学家赫拉克利特(火本原说创始人),泰利斯(水本原说创始人),阿那克西曼德(无定说创始人),阿那克西美尼(气本原说创始人),苏格拉底(西方理性形而上学传统的奠基人),柏拉图,亚里士多德 ,
伊壁鸠鲁基督教哲学查士丁(Justin),奥古斯丁(上帝之城), 拉克坦修托马斯·阿奎那(神学大全) ,罗色林安瑟尔谟(存在论论证罗吉尔·培根文艺复新后佛朗西斯·培根(现代科学之父,许多科学研究方法都是他所写的) ,霍布斯(机械唯物主义者), 笛卡尔(二元论者,非常重要的哲学家) ,斯宾诺莎(理性主义者,泛神论代表人物), 莱布尼茨(理性主义者,博学家) ,洛克(经验论者) ,贝克莱(经验论者), 休谟(逻辑上把经验论发展到顶端) ,卢梭(社会契约论者), 康德(根本上分析笛卡儿以来的二元对立传统), 费希特(自称承继康德哲学) ,黑格尔(观念论者,德意志哲学集大成者) ,叔本华(唯意志论者), 马克思(经济,政治,哲学家) ,尼采(唯意志论者,哲学史家,诗人), 罗素(著名的数学,哲学,哲学史家) ,维特根斯坦(分析哲学、语言哲学),海德格尔(存在主义), 萨特(存在主义), 德里达(解构主义), 杜威(实用主义的集大成者,教育哲学家) ,文德尔班(哲学史家) ,歌德(哲学家),罗蒂(实用主义), 詹姆士(实用主义) ,斯温博尔(现代神学主要领头人,英国科学院,神学院院士) ,福柯(结构主义心理学), 阿尔都塞(结构社会主义) ,Sosa(主要的现代形而上学家)。
哲学
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主题 哲学主题首页
“哲学”这个词最早出自希腊文的“φιλοσοφος”(philosophia),即“philo-”(喜爱)和“sophia”(智慧)(爱智慧)。19世纪70年代,日本最早的西方哲学传播者西周借用古汉语译作“哲学”,1896年前后康有为等将日本的译称介绍到中国,后渐渐通行。在西方,哲学一词通常用来说明一个人对生活的某种看法(例如某人的“人生哲学”)和基本原则(例如价值观、思想、行为)。而在学术上的哲学,则是对这些基本原则的理性根据的质疑、反思,并试图对这些基本原则进行理性的重建。
最早哲学的范围涵盖所有的知识层面。它一直是人类最抽象的知识研究。对哲学一词的介绍最初来自希腊思想家毕达哥拉斯。
目录
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8 参见
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哲学与科学的关系
从学术史看,科学是哲学的衍生物。后来,科学独立为与哲学并行的学科。科学与哲学有互动关系。科学产生知识,哲学产生思想。马克思主义认为,哲学也是一种社会意识形态。现代西方哲学中有科学哲学,是专门研究有关科学的理论。这种理论研究了科学的历史,为科学总结了许多理论模型,但这也只是解释了科学,并不是可以指导科学。哲学是人类了解世界的一种特殊方式,是使人崇高起来的一门学问。
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哲学的价值
哲学之应当学习并不在于它能对于所提出的问题提供任何确定的答案,因为一般不可能知道有什么确定的答案是真确的,而是在于这些问题本身;原因是,这些问题可以扩充我们对于一切可能事物的概念,丰富我们心灵方面的想象力,并且减低教条式的自信,这些都可能禁锢心灵的思考作用。此外,尤其在于通过哲学冥想中的宇宙之大,心灵会变得伟大起来,因而就能够和那成其为至善的宇宙结合在一起。
哲学也可以说是理性对于信仰的研究。
哲学是对世界的关于终极意义的解释,它在解释中使我们了解世界,使世界在我们的意识中合理化,从而为我们提供心灵的慰借。
哲学还是对人的自我一种定位的工具。
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哲学理论
利他主义 —— 反现实主义 —— 佛教哲学 —— 儒家思想 —— 享乐主义 —— 唯物主义 —— 唯心主义 —— 理想主义 —— 非现实主义 —— 逻辑正确主义 —— 悲观主义 —— 道家思想 —— 自我主义 —— 悲观主义 —— 理性主义 —— 现实主义 —— 唯美主义 —— 形而上学唯物主义 —— 辩证唯物主义 —— 客观唯心主义 —— 主观唯心主义 —— 非理性主义 —— 斯多噶主义 —— 民族主义——存在主义——形而上学——功利主义 —
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哲学分支
由于研究领域的不同,哲学有很多分支。
哲学史
o 东方哲学史
+ 印度哲学
+ 中国哲学史
+ 伊斯兰哲学
+ 日本哲学
o 西方哲学史
+ 古希腊哲学
+ 中世纪哲学
+ 文艺复兴时期哲学
+ 德国古典哲学
+ 俄国哲学
马克思主义哲学
o 辩证唯物主义
o 历史唯物主义
o 马克思主义哲学史
科学哲学
现代哲学
o 生存哲学
o 分析哲学
o 人文哲学
o 解释学
o 符号学
o 实用主义哲学
伦理学
o 医学伦理学
o 教育伦理学
o 政治伦理学
o 家庭伦理学
o 生命伦理学
o 生态伦理学
美学
o 美学史
o 艺术美学
o 技术美学
形而上学
现象学
过程哲学
知识论
死亡哲学
人生哲学
法律哲学
心灵哲学
墨家哲学
当代英美哲学
比较哲学
当代法国哲学
哲学哲学
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与哲学相关学科
相对论
量子力学
混沌学
旋理论
思维科学
人工智能
心理学
信息论
语义学
科学社会学
逻辑学
科学学
控制论
机械论
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其他与哲学相关的学科
宗教哲学
政治哲学
物理哲学
天文哲学
化学哲学
语言分析哲学
佛教哲学
教父哲学
教育哲学
语言哲学
o 日常语言哲学
自然哲学
经济哲学
同一哲学
思辩哲学
生物学哲学
中国哲学史史料学
历史哲学
易学
经学
玄学
灵源泛哲学体系
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哲学命题
自由意志
决定论
因果律
随机性
白马非马
百姓日用即道
悖论
变化日新
辩者二十一事
仁为万物之源
体用一源
天不变道亦不变
天道自然
万物皆备于我
物极必反
心统性情
心无本体
新故相除
形质神用
性即理
性日生日成
一分为二
一物两体
EPR悖论
坚白相盈
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参见
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Philosophy
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Providing a definition of Philosophy is fraught with difficulty, partially because to do so is itself to engage in philosophy, and partially because the word is used to mean different things
Philosophy is sometimes seen as a particular method, usually that of rational enquiry Most philosophical work assumes rationality, although the form of that rationality varies considerably For instance, Socratic method focuses on questioning technique, analytic philosophy on careful analysis of terms and language However not all philosophers would agree that rationality is fundamental
Philosophy can also be seen as the study of a particular subject matter The topic in this sense is diverse, ranging from the fundamentals of existence Metaphysics through epistemology to ethics
Other philosophers see it as a process This might be towards the perfection of the human soul, an answer to the command to Know thyself, or as seeking the Tao, or as Ludwig Wittgenstein proposed, an antidote to certain confusions of language
Philosophy is also an academic discipline, studied at Universities and colleges worldwide
In Greek, the word "philosophy" means "love of wisdom", and the word originally included all forms of knowledge and all methods of attaining knowledge Early scientists, irrespective of their field of study, called themselves "natural philosophers" Through the rise of universities and the separation of learning disciplines, philosophy has taken on a more specialized meaning Major philosophical problems include: "What do we know", "How do we know", and "What is the meaning of life"
The term can also refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions of a particular philosopher or school of philosophy The phrase "a philosophical attitude" refers to a thoughtful approach to life
Contents
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1 Overview of philosophy
o 11 Branches of philosophy
o 12 Applied philosophy
+ 121 Fields of applied philosophy
o 13 Philosophical traditions
+ 131 Western and Eastern philosophy
o 14 Non-academic uses of the word
2 History of Philosophy
3 See also
o 31 General philosophy topics
o 32 General philosophy lists
o 33 History of philosophy
o 34 Abrahamic philosophies
4 Bibliography
o 41 Introductions
+ 411 For beginners
+ 412 Topical introductions
+ 413 Anthologies
o 42 Reference works
5 External links
o 51 Resources
o 52 e-Texts
o 53 eJournals
o 54 Forums
o 55 Organizations, websites, and associations
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Overview of philosophy
The word "philosophy" derives from the ancient Greek (Φιλοσοφία, philosophia) and translates to "love of wisdom" It suggests a vocation for questioning, learning, and teaching Philosophers are curious about the world, humanity, existence, values, understanding, and the nature of things The origin of philosophy in the West lies with the pre-Socratic philosophers of ancient Greece
The keynote speech of all western philosophy is attributed to Pythagoras by Sosicrates (relying on Heraclides of Pontus), according to Diogenes Laertius in Lives of Eminent Philosophers, life of Pythagoras (88):
"Sosicrates in his Successions of Philosophers says that, when Leon the tyrant of Phlius asked him who he was, he said "A philosopher", and that he compared life to the Great Games, where some went to compete for the prize and others went with wares to sell, but the best (beltistoi) as spectators (theatai); for similarly, in life, some grow up with servile natures, greedy for fame and gain, but the philosopher (philosophos) seeks for truth (aletheia)"
From the verb theorein, "to see" comes theoria, "insight" The word for "seek" there is actually the word for "hunt" The man who loves wisdom hunts for insight The sceptics subsequently quipped that they were always looking, never finding, and labelled themselves "doubters" But even those who deny insight are claiming the insight of doubt, and the traditions and language of the Greek philosophers survives
Philosophical thinking also developed elsewhere, and can be seen in many ancient texts In China, the Tao Te Ching of Lao Tze and the Analects of Kung fu tze (Confucius) both appeared around 600 BC, about the same time as the Greek pre-Socratics were writing In India, the major philosophical texts are the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, from circa 500 BC Islamic civilization also produced many philosophical geniuses (see Islamic philosophy)
Philosophy can be distinguished from other disciplines by its methods of inquiry Philosophers often frame their questions as problems or puzzles in order to give clear examples of their doubts about a subject they find interesting, wonderful or confusing Often these questions are about the assumptions behind a belief, or about methods by which people reason
Philosophers typically frame problems in a logical manner, historically using syllogisms of traditional logic, since Frege and Russell increasingly using formal systems, such as predicate calculus, and then work towards a solution based on critical reading and reasoning Like Socrates, they search for answers through discussion, responding to the arguments of others, or careful personal contemplation Philosophers often debate the relative merits of these methods For example, they may ask whether philosophical solutions are objective, definitive, universal, and say something informative about reality On the other hand, they may ask whether these solutions give greater clarity or insight into the logic of language, or rather act as personal therapy Philosophers seek logical justification for the answers to their questions
Contemporary Western academic philosophy has been divided into two broad traditions since about the nineteenth century: Anglo-American or analytic philosophy and continental philosophy Both traditions are extremely diverse, and include their own methods of analysis Broadly speaking, analytic philosophy is distinguished by its focus on analysis and argument, and the Continental tradition distinguished by its sceptical and anti-transcendentalist assumptions and focus on ideas The areas of interest and problems are largely shared by the two traditions; they differ in their approaches and methods
Language is the philosopher's primary tool In the analytic tradition, debates about philosophical method have been closely connected to debates about the relationship between philosophy and language There is a similar concern in continental philosophy Meta-philosophy, the "philosophy of philosophy", studies the nature of philosophical problems, philosophical solutions, and the proper method for getting from one to the other These debates are not less relevant to philosophy as a whole, since the nature and role of philosophy itself has always been an essential part of philosophical deliberations
Philosophy may also be approached by examining the relationships between components, as in structuralism and recursionism The nature of science is examined in general terms (see philosophy of science), and for particular sciences, (biophilosophy)
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Branches of philosophy
Philosophers analyse and investigate such concepts as existence or being, morality or goodness, knowledge, truth, and beauty Philosophers may ask critical questions about the nature of these concepts — questions typically outside the scope of other disciplines, such as science Several major works of post-medieval philosophy begin by examining the nature of philosophy Philosophers are motivated by specific questions such as:
What is truth How or why do we identify a statement as correct or false, and how do we reason What is wisdom
Is knowledge possible How do we know what we know What is unknown If knowledge is possible, what is known vs unknown How do we take what is "known" to extrapolate what is "unknown"
Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions) If so, what is that difference Which actions are right, and which wrong Are values absolute, or relative In general or particular terms, how should I live How is right and wrong defined Is there an ultimate "ought" Is there a normative value or objective that supercedes all others
What is reality, and what things can be described as real What is the nature of those things Do some things exist independently of our perception What is the nature of space and time What is the nature of thought and thinking What is it to be a person
What is it to be beautiful How do beautiful things differ from the everyday What is Art Does true beauty exist
Socrates
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Socrates
These five broad types of question are called analytical or logical, epistemological, ethical, metaphysical, and aesthetic respectively They are not the only subjects of philosophical inquiry, and there are many overlaps between the categories which are subsumed within the discipline under the four major headings of Logic, Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology Aristotle, who was the first to use this classification (as he believed that to call himself "sophos" or wise was immodest), also considered politics (which he saw as part of ethics), modern-day physics, geology, biology, meteorology, and astronomy as branches of philosophical investigation The Greeks, through the influence of Socrates and his method, developed a tradition of analysis that divided a subject into its components to understand it better
Lao Zi
Lao Zi
Other traditions did not always use such labels, or emphasize the same themes While Hindu philosophy has similarities with Western philosophy, there was no word for "philosophy" in Japanese, Korean, or Chinese until the 19th century, despite long-established philosophical traditions Chinese philosophers, in particular, used different categories than the Greeks Definitions were not based on common features, but were usually metaphorical and referred to several subjects at once [1] Boundaries between categories are not distinct in Western philosophy, however, and since at least the 19th century, Western philosophical works have usually addressed a nexus of questions rather than distinct topics
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Applied philosophy
Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical applications The most obvious applications are those in ethics – applied ethics in particular – and in political philosophy The political philosophies of Confucius, Kautilya, Sun Tzu, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Mahatma Gandhi, Robert Nozick, and John Rawls have shaped and been used to justify governments and their actions
In the field of the philosophy of education, progressive education as championed by John Dewey has had a profound impact on educational practices in the United States in the twentieth century
Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which might help one to regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are Two useful ways that epistemology and logic can inform the real world are through the fields of journalism and police investigation Informal logic has many useful and practical applications, helping citizens to be critical in reading rhetoric and in everyday discussion Philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of art Even ontology, surely the most abstract and least practical-seeming branch of philosophy, has had important consequences for logic and computer science
In general, the various "philosophies of," such as philosophy of law, can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields
Often, philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not understood well enough to be its own branch of knowledge What were once merely philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics (among others) Computer science, cognitive science and artificial intelligence are modern areas of research that philosophy has played a role in developing
Moreover, a burgeoning profession devoted to applying philosophy to the problems of ordinary life has recently developed, called philosophical counseling Many Eastern philosophies can and do help millions of people with anxiety problems through their emphasis on meditation for calming the mind and the connection between the health of the body and the health of the soul
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Fields of applied philosophy
Philosophy of education
Philosophy of history
Philosophy of language
Philosophy of law
Philosophy of mathematics
Philosophy of mind
Philosophy of perception
Philosophy of philosophy (Metaphilosophy)
Philosophy of physics
Philosophy of politics
Philosophy of psychology
Philosophy of religion
Philosophy of science
Philosophy of social sciences
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Philosophical traditions
Members of many societies have considered philosophical questions and built philosophic traditions based upon each other's works The term "philosophy" in a Euro-American academic context may misleadingly refer solely to the philosophic traditions of Western European civilization This is also called "Western philosophy", especially when contrasted with "Eastern philosophy", which broadly subsumes the philosophic traditions of Asia Both terms group together diverse, even incompatible schools of thought
Eastern and Middle Eastern philosophical traditions have influenced Western philosophers Russian, Jewish, Islamic and recently Latin American philosophical traditions have contributed to, or been derivative of Western philosophy, yet retain a unique identity
It is convenient to divide contemporary Western academic philosophy into two traditions, since use of the term "Western philosophy" over the past century has often revealed a bias towards one or the other
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
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Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951)
Analytic philosophy is characterized by a precise approach to analysing the language of philosophical questions The purpose is to lay bare any underlying conceptual confusion This approach dominates Anglo-American philosophy, but has roots in continental Europe, where it is also practiced The tradition of analytic philosophy began with Gottlob Frege at the turn of the twentieth-century, and was carried on by Bertrand Russell, G E Moore and Ludwig Wittgenstein
Continental philosophy is a label for various schools predominant in continental Europe, but also at home in many English-speaking Humanities departments, that may examine language, metaphysical a
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1,哲学是关于世界观的理论体系,是人们关于世界总体把握的观点的总结。哲学包含了世界观和方法论,包含了人与自然,人与社会,人与人的关系的各种看法。但是,并不是所有哲学都是科学的,正如马克思所说,只有“真正的哲学是每个时代思想的精华”。因此,在追问什么是哲学时,还要知道哲学与真正的哲学的区别,只有那些反映了世界本质的哲学才是真正的哲学,才能对我们的发展起促进作用,也只有在这个意义上,哲学才是真正的智慧之学。2,哲学研究的不是具体事物,而是关于存在于世界之中的事物的看法,并且从这些看法出发,逻辑地推演出相应的对待事物的态度,也就是方法论。因此,从最广泛的角度来看,我们又可以把哲学的研究内容归结为世界观和方法论。
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